Economical Aspects of Architectural Design

Economical Aspects of Architectural Design Basics of Project Management Contents (Jump to) a) Describe and explain the difference between real estate and other assets / economic goods (e.g. capital products). b) Give at least three reasons why a client make an investment in real estate. c) In line with the scenario, List and explain all of the following:- the reasons for the client to appoint a Project Manager, referring to a least five (5) client’s tasks d) The kind/type of skills a Project Manager should have, and explain why s/he should be generalist within a client’s organization. e) List, explain and debate the major aspects/characteristics, to optimize the investment cost and subsequent (follow-up) costs within the design under constant consideration of the intended purpose. Also explain the basic interrelation between investment cost and subsequent cost. As the instructed project manager for an office building, you are being asked to analyse the architect’s design concerning economical aspects, by answering all the tasks in this brief. Task 1.1 a) Describe and explain the difference between real estate and other assets / economic goods (e.g. capital products). In order to know the differences between real estate and financial assets, one must first understand what these assets are. First and foremost, real estate is all of the value-generating properties and commodities owned by the client, being physical items such as lands and buildings on which you can put a specific value on. Such value is determined by various factors like the location, functionality and cost. Meanwhile, financial assets are all those transactional instruments which can be converted into cash. In fact, such assets can be in the form of trade receivables, shares or bonds and are done to represent an underlying value or percentage of the real estate. The difference between the two, is that such financial assets are more liquid when compared with real estate since they can be easily converted into cash. In fact, financial assets such as stocks can be easily sold within a matter of hours while real estate normally takes months to sell. Another difference between the two, is that the actual property may experience depreciation through the years while financial assets may generate more cash flow due to perpetual growth over the years. Needless to say, one must keep that in real estate the client would own the actual land, a land component which will have an infinite lifetime. Also, financial assets may possess a greater risk since the investment being done can’t be physically seen or studied. Finally, one must also keep in mind that the economic cycle is always changing by time (as seen in the image below) and therefore if such investment is to be done, the client must have an idea of the economy’s situation in the near future. http://smallbusiness.chron.com/financial-vs-real-asset-79865.html http://www.gulfbase.com/InvestmentTutorial/Section?id=24 https://books.google.com.mt/books?id=ciJwGJfjHGkCpg=PA739lpg=PA739dq=real+estate+versus+financial+assetssource=blots=rJtkg_kdgksig=D5u9lFi7MdLceg06jRKJrKMja7chl=ensa=Xei=RMCGVIXxGMz5UKOtgsgDved=0CEEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepageq=real%20estate%20versus%20financial%20assetsf=false http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~adamodar/pdfiles/valn2ed/ch26.pdf b) Give at least three reasons why a client makes an investment in real estate. There are various reasons why a client should invest in real estate. These three main reasons are; Rental Such procedure is considered to be an old practice which is still commonly used nowadays, were the client buys a property and rent it out to a tenant/s. In fact, in such system the client/landlord is responsible to maintain such property in a condition and ensure that all taxes and other fees are also paid by this individual. On the other hand, the landlord will then request the tenant to pay a specific fee to cover all of the cost for maintenance and accommodation. Usually, when the mortgage of such property has been paid, the consequent rents will become a profit to the client. Trading Unlike the rental procedure, trading involves the buying of property with the intention of holding them for a short period before sell them in order to make profit. Especially when it comes to undervalued properties, a prospective client can make a substantial amount of profit for a low capital investment especially when renovation are done. Develop Although the previously mentioned reasons can offer a reasonable profit to the client, one must not forget that once an investment is done on a real estate it can offer multiple possibilities to develop such property. Therefore it is very important that when a client is buying a property, one makes sure that such investment can offer such profit possibilities in the future. http://www.investopedia.com/articles/pf/06/realestateinvest.asp http://realestate.about.com/od/realestateinvesting/qt/why_invest.htm http://www.yourinvestmentpropertymag.com.au/buying-property/35-reasons-to-invest-in-real-estate-120946.aspx Task 1.2 a) In line with the scenario, List and explain all of the following:- the reasons for the client to appoint a Project Manager, referring to a least five (5) client’s tasks (200 words) In order to have an optimum office building, one must have a combination of a specific target definition, adequate planning and professional execution from a team having an expert understanding. If adequate planning is used within the timeframe of the office building, it can reduce losses while also saving from the overall cost and time. In fact, such client tasks may include: Schedule Monitoring Quality Assurance Decision making Cost Monitoring Permit compatibility Although these are only few of the tasks that fall under project management, for this reason a project manager is appointed on behalf of the client. Such appointment must be done in order to have an individual which can make decisions and report back to the client. Since the office building may require a substantial amount of time to manage, a team of project management must be set up in order to realise the client’s concept. Within the office building the project manager will handle the mentioned client tasks like monitoring of schedule to ensure the deadline date is met, monitor cost to keep in line with the budget, conduct quality assurance to make sure they are within the agreed specifications and also support the client in the remaining tasks. Such procedure must be done to reduce the load or handle those which cannot be delegated by the client. Slide 68- understand with relation to time cost and quality†¦. https://books.google.com.mt/books?id=BNVOAaPw6qMCpg=PA106lpg=PA106dq=why+should+a+client+appoint+a+project+managersource=blots=sCklzzM8IWsig=lVnUwtNFt38m1VYKXjYzFwdm0S0hl=ensa=Xei=ahqIVNr7GMnsO8yJgfgDved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=why%20should%20a%20client%20appoint%20a%20project%20managerf=false https://books.google.com.mt/books?id=7Tif1JpevVwCpg=PA7dq=why+should+a+client+appoint+a+project+managerhl=ensa=Xei=ih6IVNWoKIG5OMn_gKgHved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepageq=why%20should%20a%20client%20appoint%20a%20project%20managerf=false * b) The kind/type of skills a Project Manager should have, and explain why s/he should be generalist within a client’s organization. (200 words) As the project manager of the office building, it is important to have a number of skills that ensures one can be comfortable with the specific project type and responsibilities associated with it. Such responsibilities may include process organisation, target definition, planning process and construction implementation. The project manager has to be able to give the best advice to the client, while building a healthy communication with the architects and specialists found within the project. Furthermore, by clearly defining the ‘Target Definition’, the project manager will ensure that all phases are done one after the other in the smoothest way possible. More importantly, the project manager must be also a generalist within the client’s organization in order to handle both the stages of the project and participants involved. A generalist project manager, will have enough experience to know that when involving participants at the early stages of the project they w ill put their knowhow and transmit their information to achieve a better overall outcome. Furthermore, such project manager will be able to look into the various project processes and create specific management functions in order to integrate the planner’s objectives with the demand of the executing companies. CHECK WHETHER TO ADD SPECIALISTS https://www.linkedin.com/groups/Project-Manager-Specialist-Generalist-37888.S.204373857 think about cost implication†¦remember the balcony alteration in midi project Task 1.3 c) In line with the scenario, List and explain the differences between line and staff functions (Project Leadership and Project Controlling) within different project management functions, giving at least five (5) examples concerning client’s tasks. http://www.ukessays.com/essays/construction/commercial-real-estate-residential-real-estate-construction-essay.php During the project leadership and project controlling of the said office building, one can decide to choose either line or staff function. Line Function In this system, the hierarchical structure starts with the client and continuous with the other participants involved within the project. Since our office building is relatively complex, the client may not be able to manage all tasks and so, by assigning a project manager he will be responsible to handle the various client’s tasks. This will give a good idea of the project’s management requirements since they can directly impact the outcome of the project. Such client’s tasks are; Project Organisation Ensure permit compatibility Processes execution Enforcement Ensure project financing Such procedure, may also be adopted when the clients does not have a certain management knowhow. In such cases the engaged project manager will act as a â€Å"Temporary CEO† and represent the client in various managerial functions especially when it comes to the control of planner and executing entities.However, one must keep in mind that the project manager will still report to the client’s request. Staff Function On the other hand, within a staff function the client no longer has the ability to act as the primary deciding role but now he has to report to the project’s consultants. This system gives the client the responsibility to control this project (office building), however constant reporting must be made with the project manager. Add someting Task 1.4 d) List and explain the differences between transferable and non-transferable client’s tasks. (400 words) In large scale project Transferable tasks Non-transferable tasks e) List, explain and debate the major aspects/characteristics, to optimize the investment cost and subsequent (follow-up) costs within the design under constant consideration of the intended purpose. Also explain the basic interrelation between investment cost and subsequent cost. (500 words) One must ensure that the design of the scenario matches the concepts and sketches Make sure that the concept has been followed to ensure that the agreed initial concept is after all met. Any saving done at design stage one must see a saving at a later post-commission.

The Future of Small Science Essay -- Nanoscience Technology Essays

The Future of Small Science In the last few years, nanotechnology has become a craze within the science community, even though its almost completely theoretical nature makes it an industry of potential, rather than results. But in the United States, faith in its future, backed by a government four-year plan to spend $3.7 billion on nanotechnology research, a host of entrepreneurial businesses have sprung up with â€Å"nano† written somewhere in their mission statements. Basically defined only as the manipulation of particles on the nano scale (i.e., extremely small), the fundamental science for nanotechnology has been around since 1918, when physicist Max Planck helped create the theories of quantum physics. But without precision equipment, these theories could not be tested, and until recently no applications could be developed for this new and intriguing science. Now, the term nanotechnology is used to encompass new techniques and applications made real by advanced equipment. And it isn’t only businesses fighting to stay ahead in the race for mass-production of these newly possible devices, but many competitive schools, with Massachusetts universities being main players in the State’s world-renowned nano research. Northeastern University has been a serious player in the nanotech field since 2001, when the Kostis Donation gave $200,000 to fund continued nanotechnology research. Now, with a $12.4 million grant received this March from the National Science Foundation, split mainly between two other New England universities – the University of New Hampshire and UMASS Lowell – Northeastern has big plans for the future of the very small. â€Å"It’s not a lot of money, but it attracts industry, and that’s what we need,† said A... ...reate each nano device leaves much room for error as well as being impractically slow. Nanoscience is a technology with its greatest potential not for creation, but improvement. It has caught the attention of such a large section of the market because miniaturization is such a versatile and widely desired concept; the medical world hopes to be able to use intelligently invasive nano devices to fight certain viruses within the human body; the computer chip industry could push its processors to unheard of speeds, as smaller chips mean less power, and thus what is considered hand-held technology today could become microscopic. And now with Northeastern positioning itself directly in the middle of what could be the greatest scientific revolution since the Theory of Relativity, this university could become a big force in a world becoming obsessed with the very small. The Future of Small Science Essay -- Nanoscience Technology Essays The Future of Small Science In the last few years, nanotechnology has become a craze within the science community, even though its almost completely theoretical nature makes it an industry of potential, rather than results. But in the United States, faith in its future, backed by a government four-year plan to spend $3.7 billion on nanotechnology research, a host of entrepreneurial businesses have sprung up with â€Å"nano† written somewhere in their mission statements. Basically defined only as the manipulation of particles on the nano scale (i.e., extremely small), the fundamental science for nanotechnology has been around since 1918, when physicist Max Planck helped create the theories of quantum physics. But without precision equipment, these theories could not be tested, and until recently no applications could be developed for this new and intriguing science. Now, the term nanotechnology is used to encompass new techniques and applications made real by advanced equipment. And it isn’t only businesses fighting to stay ahead in the race for mass-production of these newly possible devices, but many competitive schools, with Massachusetts universities being main players in the State’s world-renowned nano research. Northeastern University has been a serious player in the nanotech field since 2001, when the Kostis Donation gave $200,000 to fund continued nanotechnology research. Now, with a $12.4 million grant received this March from the National Science Foundation, split mainly between two other New England universities – the University of New Hampshire and UMASS Lowell – Northeastern has big plans for the future of the very small. â€Å"It’s not a lot of money, but it attracts industry, and that’s what we need,† said A... ...reate each nano device leaves much room for error as well as being impractically slow. Nanoscience is a technology with its greatest potential not for creation, but improvement. It has caught the attention of such a large section of the market because miniaturization is such a versatile and widely desired concept; the medical world hopes to be able to use intelligently invasive nano devices to fight certain viruses within the human body; the computer chip industry could push its processors to unheard of speeds, as smaller chips mean less power, and thus what is considered hand-held technology today could become microscopic. And now with Northeastern positioning itself directly in the middle of what could be the greatest scientific revolution since the Theory of Relativity, this university could become a big force in a world becoming obsessed with the very small.

Sources of Demo Data

The issue of population and development has increasingly evolved into the ‘population, environment, and development nexus. In the face of this mandate for research on population and environment dynamics, different theoretical frameworks are brought on board. Ester Boserup was one of the scholars who have contributed to these theoretical frameworks hence this essay will attempt to expound Ester her theory of population growth and demonstrate how applicable the theory is to Africa. Later on, the weaknesses of the theory will be brought in with reference to the African context.Lastly a conclusion will summarize the whole essay. A theory is defined as a set of facts, propositions, or principles analyzed in their relation to one another to explain phenomena. (Chambers dictionary, 2005) Population growth is defined as the total number of people who inhabit an area, region, or country, or the number of people in a particular group who inhabit an area. Ester Boserup (May 18, 910 â€⠀œ September 24, 1999) was a Danish economist, writer. She studied economical and agricultural development, worked at the United Nations as well as other international organizations, and she wrote several books.Her most notable book is The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. (Aldine, 1965) This book presents a â€Å"dynamic analysis embracing all types of primitive agriculture. The work undoes the assumption dating back to Malthus’s time (and still held in many quarters) that agricultural methods determine population (via food supply). Instead, Boserup argued that population determines agricultural methods. A major point of her book is that â€Å"necessity is the mother of invention†.It was her great belief that humanity would always find a way and was quoted in saying â€Å"The power of ingenuity would always outmatch that of demand† in a letter to Northern Irish philosopher T S Hueston. She also influ enced debate on the role of women in workforce and human development, and the possibility of better opportunities of work and education for women. (Jain, 2005) According to Malthusian theory, the size and growth of the population depends on the food supply and agricultural methods. In Boserup’s theory agricultural methods depend on the size of the population.In the Malthusian view, in times when food is not sufficient for everyone, the excess population will die. However, Boserup argued that in those times of pressure, people will find ways to increase the production of food by increasing workforce, machinery, fertilizers, (Jain, 2005) Bosarupian theory focuses on the relationship between population, environment, and technology. Her concept of ‘population,’ encompasses population density as well as absolute size and growth. Her concept of environment refers mainly to land resources and related factors such as climate and soil quality.Since her focus is historical civilizations or developing countries, ‘technology’ for Boserup refers mainly to the tools and inputs used in agriculture, the primary productive activity in these societies. In arraying relationships between population, environment, and technology, Boserup proposes that it is generally agreed that successive change in technology has an important influence on the population size. The opposite side of the interrelationship, the influence of population size on technology, has attracted less attention (Boserup, 1981, p. ). In response, Boserup focus her attention on exploring the role of population as an independent variable that influences both the development of agricultural technology which, in turn, shape the productive capacity of resources. Boserup argues that in the short-term a period of sustained population growth would lower output per man hour. This occurs more intensive methods mean more hours of work on the part of the agriculture laborer. The ratio of output to labour cost, thus, deteriorates in the short run.In the long run, however, workers would become more efficient at the tasks required by the new intensive regime. More importantly, the growing population would stimulate more efficient production by allowing division of labor. Therefore, a growing population or increased population density leads ultimately to long run increase in output that outweigh short run declines (Boserup, 1965, p. 39-42). Boserup also states that for small populations with low density it is not worthwhile switching to more intensive regimes that require more labor inputs and that entail short-term productivity losses.She asserts that density must increase to a certain level before it is worthwhile accepting short term declines in labor output and the â€Å"hard toil of intensive agriculture† (Boserup, 1965, p. 51). Once higher densities occur, however, it becomes imperative for the population to undertake the increase labor investment of more intensi ve systems for the sake of the long term advantage of increased output. Boserup asserts that reliance on food imports to meet the gap between the growing populations food needs and production has undercut the ressure for domestic intensification of agriculture. By offering food aid and subsidized and concessionary food imports, the developed world has made it more attractive for many sub-Saharan African countries to import food rather than increase domestic production. She asserts that food imports also play a role in the continued lack of investment in rural areas. Dependence on food production lessens the need for investment in the domestic food production. This allows all resources to flow into the production of crops for export or urban industrial sector.This type of flow correspond with the major development models of export-led growth promoted by international organizations, such as world bank, in sub-Saharan Africa (Boserup, 1981, p. 202) The theory has been instrumental in u nderstanding agricultural patterns in developing countries, although it is highly simplified and generalized. The theory can be applied in Africa in the following ways; Boserup sees sub-Saharan Africa as historically a sparsely populated continent relative to other regions. As a result, subsistence agriculture and low-technology predominate in the region.Boserup states that â€Å"because past rates of population growth were much lower in Africa than in other parts of the world, extensive land-using subsistence systems, that is, long-fallow agriculture continue to be much more prevalent than elsewhere. In large parts of Africa, there is more land than the sparse population needs for growing crops† (Boserup, 1990, p. 258). Boserup’s theory can also be demonstrated in the Case study of Mauritius. Mauritius is an island country of 1860  km2 in area, located off the east coast of Africa.Farming and fishing are its main ventures, with agriculture accounting for 4. 6% of it s GDP. This is comprehensible since it has fertile soils and a tropical climate. Its exports are divided into four main categories: sugar (32%), garments (31%), plastics (32%) and others (5%). (Jain, 2005) Its population in 1992 was 1,094,000 people. For 2025, the estimated population is 1,365,000. This would mean a growth rate of 1. 45%, with a doubling time of 47 years. Its fertility rate was of 2. 17 children per woman. Jain, 2005) It is possible to notice how uneven population growth has been in Mauritius. At first it was a maintained at a more or less constant level, because there were almost equal values of birth and death rates. Around the 1950s, the birth rate increased significantly (from 35 per thousand to more than 45 per thousand). The death rate declined from 30 to 15 per thousand shortly afterwards. (Jain, 2005) The rate of natural increase was very great, and there was a great pressure on the country for resources because of this increasing population.It was then that the government had to intervene. It promoted family planning, restricted early marriage, provided improved health care and looked to improve the status of women. The government also worked on diversifying agriculture, invested in industry and improved trading links. With time, there were changes in general attitude toward family size and people were getting married later. As well, there was an improvement in educational and work opportunities for women (in 1975 employment of women was 22. 3%, by 1990 it had increased to 35. 5%). Many transnational companies came to Mauritius because of tax incentives, the Freeport at Port Luis, the large number of educated residents, a considerable amount of cheap labour and the good transport. This would assert to us Boserup’s theory that â€Å"necessity is the mother of invention. † Because the population had risen, the government had to take measures to adapt to this growth. It had to improve and diversify agriculture, so proving a gricultural intensification and that â€Å"population growth cause’s agricultural growth. (This idea is presented in The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure; 1965. ) It also suggests that a country must improve its technology to be able to support the growing population, and that many technologies will not be taken advantage of if the population is not large enough. Mauritius had to build a Freeport and improve transportation to be able to maintain its population. (Jain, 2005) Chitemene system in Zambia is also one example of how Buserup’s theory is applicable to Africa.Chitemene system is a method of farming practiced in the Northern Province of Zambia in which fields are cleared by cutting down trees in order to make the soil fertile. This system was introduced as a result of population increase in Northern Province of Zambia. As population density increased, there was need for more food production, this led discovery of an agriculture system which could make land more fertile hence increasing food production for the growing population. Despite Boserup’s theory being considered as the optimum population theory it as some weaknesses in the African context.Some of these weaknesses are explained in this part of the text. Boserup did not put the law of diminishing returns into consideration when formulating her theory. Increasing labor at a fixed potion of land (increasing population density) would lead to an extent where each addition unit of labor would be adding less to output than what the previous unit added, this would reach a point where output starts decreasing. Most African countries have limited technology and hence increasing population density would lead to diminishing returns in agriculture. (Obadan. 004. P. 99) Another weakness in Boserup’s theory is lack of consideration of ecological factors that arise as a result of increase in population density which affect agriculture negatively. For example in Africa, Nigeria in particular, agriculture contributed more than 75 percent of export earnings before 1970. Since then, due to population growth, however, agriculture has stagnated, mostly due to ecological factors such as drought, disease, and reduction in soil fertility. By the mid-1990s, agriculture’s share of exports had declined to less than 5 percent.Once an exporter of food to nearby countries, Nigeria now must import food to meet domestic demand (keet, 1994: p. 55). It is clear that certain types of fragile environments cannot support excessive numbers of people in Africa for example the Barotse flood plains in Zambia. In such cases, population pressure may not lead to technological innovations as Boserup suggested. Boserup’s theory does not adequately account for lack of the impact of subsidization of agriculture production by developed countries on African.Subsidization of agricultural products by developed countries lea ds to African agriculture products fetching low prices at the international market which in turn discourages farming in Africa despite an increase in population density. Fontanel and Touatam (2004, p. 31) gave an example of trade in cotton. Without financial subsides from the government, the price of cotton production in the United States would be three times higher than the cotton production in most sub-Saharan Africa.Because of subsides to cotton producers in the United States and European union in 2001/2002, Africa had lost in that period US $920 million (Miroudot, 2004: 47). Boserup’s theory does not also account for the comflicts in some African states which hinder agricultural activities such as farming hence making them depend on foreign aid rather than domestically produced products. Ayttey (1998, p. 193) writes that in 1996, more than 20 million of Africans were refugees. These people, who have lost their homes, jobs, and possessions, should be the ones to go to scho ol, grow food, or work in factories and government and business administration.This has greatly contributed to the low food output levels in these countries. Boserup’s idea is based upon field studies in south east Asia and she developed her idea based on the number of assumptions, her ideas are not much applicable in Africa which the population is sparse since her field work was conducted in places with very high population densities like india. In conclusion, Boserup’s population theory may not alone fully explain the relationship between population growth, environment and technology but most importantly it has offered a complementary perspective to other theories.The theory has offered applicable solutions on the relationship between population growth and resources especially in Africa. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ayittey, G. 1998. Africa In Chaos, St. Martin’s press. New York Boserup, E. 1965. The Conditions of Agricultural Growth. Allen and Unwin, London. Boserup, E. 1981 . Population and Technological Change. Chicago press, Chicago. Boserup, E. 1990. Economic and Demographic Relationships in Development. The John Hopkins University press. London. Ehrlich, P. 1968. The Population Bomb: Ballantine. New York. Fontanel, J. and Touatam, A. 2004. The Rift. African Geopolitics. No. 13. Paris. OR. IMA INTERNATIONAL.Pp. 29-42. Keet, D. 1994. Systematic Destruction – IMF/World Bank Social Engineering in Africa. Track Two. The centre for intergroup studies. Vol. 2. No. 1. Pp. 10-11. Obadan, M. 2004. The External Debt Crisis: Strategies and policies. In African Development and Governance strategies in the 21st century. London . Zed Books. Pp. 140-164. Simon, J. 1981. The Ultimate Resource: Princeton university press. New Jersey. Aldine. (1965, 08 03). Women, Development and the UN. Retrieved 03 15, 2012, from wikipedia: http://www. wikipedia. com Jain, D. (2005, 03 16). ester buserup. Retrieved 03 15, 2012, from enotes. com: http://www. enotes. com Sources of Demo Data The issue of population and development has increasingly evolved into the ‘population, environment, and development nexus. In the face of this mandate for research on population and environment dynamics, different theoretical frameworks are brought on board. Ester Boserup was one of the scholars who have contributed to these theoretical frameworks hence this essay will attempt to expound Ester her theory of population growth and demonstrate how applicable the theory is to Africa. Later on, the weaknesses of the theory will be brought in with reference to the African context.Lastly a conclusion will summarize the whole essay. A theory is defined as a set of facts, propositions, or principles analyzed in their relation to one another to explain phenomena. (Chambers dictionary, 2005) Population growth is defined as the total number of people who inhabit an area, region, or country, or the number of people in a particular group who inhabit an area. Ester Boserup (May 18, 910 â€⠀œ September 24, 1999) was a Danish economist, writer. She studied economical and agricultural development, worked at the United Nations as well as other international organizations, and she wrote several books.Her most notable book is The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. (Aldine, 1965) This book presents a â€Å"dynamic analysis embracing all types of primitive agriculture. The work undoes the assumption dating back to Malthus’s time (and still held in many quarters) that agricultural methods determine population (via food supply). Instead, Boserup argued that population determines agricultural methods. A major point of her book is that â€Å"necessity is the mother of invention†.It was her great belief that humanity would always find a way and was quoted in saying â€Å"The power of ingenuity would always outmatch that of demand† in a letter to Northern Irish philosopher T S Hueston. She also influ enced debate on the role of women in workforce and human development, and the possibility of better opportunities of work and education for women. (Jain, 2005) According to Malthusian theory, the size and growth of the population depends on the food supply and agricultural methods. In Boserup’s theory agricultural methods depend on the size of the population.In the Malthusian view, in times when food is not sufficient for everyone, the excess population will die. However, Boserup argued that in those times of pressure, people will find ways to increase the production of food by increasing workforce, machinery, fertilizers, (Jain, 2005) Bosarupian theory focuses on the relationship between population, environment, and technology. Her concept of ‘population,’ encompasses population density as well as absolute size and growth. Her concept of environment refers mainly to land resources and related factors such as climate and soil quality.Since her focus is historical civilizations or developing countries, ‘technology’ for Boserup refers mainly to the tools and inputs used in agriculture, the primary productive activity in these societies. In arraying relationships between population, environment, and technology, Boserup proposes that it is generally agreed that successive change in technology has an important influence on the population size. The opposite side of the interrelationship, the influence of population size on technology, has attracted less attention (Boserup, 1981, p. ). In response, Boserup focus her attention on exploring the role of population as an independent variable that influences both the development of agricultural technology which, in turn, shape the productive capacity of resources. Boserup argues that in the short-term a period of sustained population growth would lower output per man hour. This occurs more intensive methods mean more hours of work on the part of the agriculture laborer. The ratio of output to labour cost, thus, deteriorates in the short run.In the long run, however, workers would become more efficient at the tasks required by the new intensive regime. More importantly, the growing population would stimulate more efficient production by allowing division of labor. Therefore, a growing population or increased population density leads ultimately to long run increase in output that outweigh short run declines (Boserup, 1965, p. 39-42). Boserup also states that for small populations with low density it is not worthwhile switching to more intensive regimes that require more labor inputs and that entail short-term productivity losses.She asserts that density must increase to a certain level before it is worthwhile accepting short term declines in labor output and the â€Å"hard toil of intensive agriculture† (Boserup, 1965, p. 51). Once higher densities occur, however, it becomes imperative for the population to undertake the increase labor investment of more intensi ve systems for the sake of the long term advantage of increased output. Boserup asserts that reliance on food imports to meet the gap between the growing populations food needs and production has undercut the ressure for domestic intensification of agriculture. By offering food aid and subsidized and concessionary food imports, the developed world has made it more attractive for many sub-Saharan African countries to import food rather than increase domestic production. She asserts that food imports also play a role in the continued lack of investment in rural areas. Dependence on food production lessens the need for investment in the domestic food production. This allows all resources to flow into the production of crops for export or urban industrial sector.This type of flow correspond with the major development models of export-led growth promoted by international organizations, such as world bank, in sub-Saharan Africa (Boserup, 1981, p. 202) The theory has been instrumental in u nderstanding agricultural patterns in developing countries, although it is highly simplified and generalized. The theory can be applied in Africa in the following ways; Boserup sees sub-Saharan Africa as historically a sparsely populated continent relative to other regions. As a result, subsistence agriculture and low-technology predominate in the region.Boserup states that â€Å"because past rates of population growth were much lower in Africa than in other parts of the world, extensive land-using subsistence systems, that is, long-fallow agriculture continue to be much more prevalent than elsewhere. In large parts of Africa, there is more land than the sparse population needs for growing crops† (Boserup, 1990, p. 258). Boserup’s theory can also be demonstrated in the Case study of Mauritius. Mauritius is an island country of 1860  km2 in area, located off the east coast of Africa.Farming and fishing are its main ventures, with agriculture accounting for 4. 6% of it s GDP. This is comprehensible since it has fertile soils and a tropical climate. Its exports are divided into four main categories: sugar (32%), garments (31%), plastics (32%) and others (5%). (Jain, 2005) Its population in 1992 was 1,094,000 people. For 2025, the estimated population is 1,365,000. This would mean a growth rate of 1. 45%, with a doubling time of 47 years. Its fertility rate was of 2. 17 children per woman. Jain, 2005) It is possible to notice how uneven population growth has been in Mauritius. At first it was a maintained at a more or less constant level, because there were almost equal values of birth and death rates. Around the 1950s, the birth rate increased significantly (from 35 per thousand to more than 45 per thousand). The death rate declined from 30 to 15 per thousand shortly afterwards. (Jain, 2005) The rate of natural increase was very great, and there was a great pressure on the country for resources because of this increasing population.It was then that the government had to intervene. It promoted family planning, restricted early marriage, provided improved health care and looked to improve the status of women. The government also worked on diversifying agriculture, invested in industry and improved trading links. With time, there were changes in general attitude toward family size and people were getting married later. As well, there was an improvement in educational and work opportunities for women (in 1975 employment of women was 22. 3%, by 1990 it had increased to 35. 5%). Many transnational companies came to Mauritius because of tax incentives, the Freeport at Port Luis, the large number of educated residents, a considerable amount of cheap labour and the good transport. This would assert to us Boserup’s theory that â€Å"necessity is the mother of invention. † Because the population had risen, the government had to take measures to adapt to this growth. It had to improve and diversify agriculture, so proving a gricultural intensification and that â€Å"population growth cause’s agricultural growth. (This idea is presented in The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure; 1965. ) It also suggests that a country must improve its technology to be able to support the growing population, and that many technologies will not be taken advantage of if the population is not large enough. Mauritius had to build a Freeport and improve transportation to be able to maintain its population. (Jain, 2005) Chitemene system in Zambia is also one example of how Buserup’s theory is applicable to Africa.Chitemene system is a method of farming practiced in the Northern Province of Zambia in which fields are cleared by cutting down trees in order to make the soil fertile. This system was introduced as a result of population increase in Northern Province of Zambia. As population density increased, there was need for more food production, this led discovery of an agriculture system which could make land more fertile hence increasing food production for the growing population. Despite Boserup’s theory being considered as the optimum population theory it as some weaknesses in the African context.Some of these weaknesses are explained in this part of the text. Boserup did not put the law of diminishing returns into consideration when formulating her theory. Increasing labor at a fixed potion of land (increasing population density) would lead to an extent where each addition unit of labor would be adding less to output than what the previous unit added, this would reach a point where output starts decreasing. Most African countries have limited technology and hence increasing population density would lead to diminishing returns in agriculture. (Obadan. 004. P. 99) Another weakness in Boserup’s theory is lack of consideration of ecological factors that arise as a result of increase in population density which affect agriculture negatively. For example in Africa, Nigeria in particular, agriculture contributed more than 75 percent of export earnings before 1970. Since then, due to population growth, however, agriculture has stagnated, mostly due to ecological factors such as drought, disease, and reduction in soil fertility. By the mid-1990s, agriculture’s share of exports had declined to less than 5 percent.Once an exporter of food to nearby countries, Nigeria now must import food to meet domestic demand (keet, 1994: p. 55). It is clear that certain types of fragile environments cannot support excessive numbers of people in Africa for example the Barotse flood plains in Zambia. In such cases, population pressure may not lead to technological innovations as Boserup suggested. Boserup’s theory does not adequately account for lack of the impact of subsidization of agriculture production by developed countries on African.Subsidization of agricultural products by developed countries lea ds to African agriculture products fetching low prices at the international market which in turn discourages farming in Africa despite an increase in population density. Fontanel and Touatam (2004, p. 31) gave an example of trade in cotton. Without financial subsides from the government, the price of cotton production in the United States would be three times higher than the cotton production in most sub-Saharan Africa.Because of subsides to cotton producers in the United States and European union in 2001/2002, Africa had lost in that period US $920 million (Miroudot, 2004: 47). Boserup’s theory does not also account for the comflicts in some African states which hinder agricultural activities such as farming hence making them depend on foreign aid rather than domestically produced products. Ayttey (1998, p. 193) writes that in 1996, more than 20 million of Africans were refugees. These people, who have lost their homes, jobs, and possessions, should be the ones to go to scho ol, grow food, or work in factories and government and business administration.This has greatly contributed to the low food output levels in these countries. Boserup’s idea is based upon field studies in south east Asia and she developed her idea based on the number of assumptions, her ideas are not much applicable in Africa which the population is sparse since her field work was conducted in places with very high population densities like india. In conclusion, Boserup’s population theory may not alone fully explain the relationship between population growth, environment and technology but most importantly it has offered a complementary perspective to other theories.The theory has offered applicable solutions on the relationship between population growth and resources especially in Africa. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ayittey, G. 1998. Africa In Chaos, St. Martin’s press. New York Boserup, E. 1965. The Conditions of Agricultural Growth. Allen and Unwin, London. Boserup, E. 1981 . Population and Technological Change. Chicago press, Chicago. Boserup, E. 1990. Economic and Demographic Relationships in Development. The John Hopkins University press. London. Ehrlich, P. 1968. The Population Bomb: Ballantine. New York. Fontanel, J. and Touatam, A. 2004. The Rift. African Geopolitics. No. 13. Paris. OR. IMA INTERNATIONAL.Pp. 29-42. Keet, D. 1994. Systematic Destruction – IMF/World Bank Social Engineering in Africa. Track Two. The centre for intergroup studies. Vol. 2. No. 1. Pp. 10-11. Obadan, M. 2004. The External Debt Crisis: Strategies and policies. In African Development and Governance strategies in the 21st century. London . Zed Books. Pp. 140-164. Simon, J. 1981. The Ultimate Resource: Princeton university press. New Jersey. Aldine. (1965, 08 03). Women, Development and the UN. Retrieved 03 15, 2012, from wikipedia: http://www. wikipedia. com Jain, D. (2005, 03 16). ester buserup. Retrieved 03 15, 2012, from enotes. com: http://www. enotes. com

Free Essays on Ralph Waldo Emerson

Ralph Ellison: Short Story Struggles There are many famous African American writers that are well known in today's society. Many are considered to be legends, as well as good role models for the youth of today. There are so many of these writers that are acknowledged in our history books, and there are even a few that have holidays set aside for them. Holidays for the nation to think about their contribution to our world. Although many of the African American writers are no longer alive, their outstanding achievements are still recognized, and taught to many boys and girls in schools all over the nation. Many of these writers wrote stories that at some extent represented a part of their lives. Even though one writer may have written hundreds of pieces of literature, something about their life or something about them is evident in their work. Keeping this in mind, this aspect has shaped their particular style of writing. One particular black successful writer is Ralph Ellison. Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on March 1, 1914, in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. He was the second son of Lewis and Ida Ellison. His older brother had died while still an infant. Three years after Ralph was born, his parents had another son named Herbert. Ralph Ellison was named after the nineteenth (19th) century philosopher and writer Ralph Waldo Emerson. His father named him this, hoping that one day his son would become a poet. Lewis Ellison was killed in an accident in 1917, so he left his wife Ida to care for their two young sons. Ellison developed an interest in music, and he particularly liked jazz and classical music. When he graduated from high school at the age of nineteen (19), it was his musical abilities Page 1 that won him an Oklahoma State Scholarship to attend the prestigious black college in Alabama, known as the Tuskegee Institute. While at the Tuskegee Institute, Ellison had to find a job, to earn extra money. He decided ... Free Essays on Ralph Waldo Emerson Free Essays on Ralph Waldo Emerson Ralph Ellison: Short Story Struggles There are many famous African American writers that are well known in today's society. Many are considered to be legends, as well as good role models for the youth of today. There are so many of these writers that are acknowledged in our history books, and there are even a few that have holidays set aside for them. Holidays for the nation to think about their contribution to our world. Although many of the African American writers are no longer alive, their outstanding achievements are still recognized, and taught to many boys and girls in schools all over the nation. Many of these writers wrote stories that at some extent represented a part of their lives. Even though one writer may have written hundreds of pieces of literature, something about their life or something about them is evident in their work. Keeping this in mind, this aspect has shaped their particular style of writing. One particular black successful writer is Ralph Ellison. Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on March 1, 1914, in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. He was the second son of Lewis and Ida Ellison. His older brother had died while still an infant. Three years after Ralph was born, his parents had another son named Herbert. Ralph Ellison was named after the nineteenth (19th) century philosopher and writer Ralph Waldo Emerson. His father named him this, hoping that one day his son would become a poet. Lewis Ellison was killed in an accident in 1917, so he left his wife Ida to care for their two young sons. Ellison developed an interest in music, and he particularly liked jazz and classical music. When he graduated from high school at the age of nineteen (19), it was his musical abilities Page 1 that won him an Oklahoma State Scholarship to attend the prestigious black college in Alabama, known as the Tuskegee Institute. While at the Tuskegee Institute, Ellison had to find a job, to earn extra money. He decided ...

Free Essays on The Three Things I Am Afraid Of

Fear is a natural part in the life of every person. There is a reason or reasons behind all fears, whether the fear is instinctive or acquired. Through the course of my life, I have taken notice of three fears that unnerve me. These three things are kidnapping, drowning, and cockroaches. The most recognizable fear that is thought I think on almost daily is the fear of having one of my children kidnapped. Although I am aware that child kidnapping is not an everyday occurrence, it remains a fear of mine. The fear of kidnapping is a common fear among most parents. This fear is an instinctive fear reinforced by regular reports on national news of a child that has been kidnapped. If this fear were to materialize, I would always wonder if my child was being properly taken care of, if he was missing his mom, or at worse, if he was dead. This fear is probably at the top of most parents’ lists of fears as it is mine. Next, the fear of drowning is a thought that brings panic to me anytime I am near water. This fear was brought on at an early age by a near drowning experience. The thought of not being able to breathe is not something that is easily overcome. I am constantly thinking what will happen if I fall into the water. Will I be able to get to the surface? My fear of drowning has only grown in proportion due to my aversion of water. Lastly, the fear of cockroaches is an acquired fear that I got vicariously through my mother. One day when I was a young child we were riding in the car and a cockroach flew onto my mother. She in turn, stopped the vehicle and jump out of the car. She screamed for about 10 minutes until she was assured that the cockroach was out of the car. I know how a huge fear of cockroaches because of this very incident. I am deathly afraid that one will fly on me and touch me with its nasty legs. In my opinion, cockroaches are one of the nastiest insects on the planet. I am petrified by fear when I see one. In conclu... Free Essays on The Three Things I Am Afraid Of Free Essays on The Three Things I Am Afraid Of Fear is a natural part in the life of every person. There is a reason or reasons behind all fears, whether the fear is instinctive or acquired. Through the course of my life, I have taken notice of three fears that unnerve me. These three things are kidnapping, drowning, and cockroaches. The most recognizable fear that is thought I think on almost daily is the fear of having one of my children kidnapped. Although I am aware that child kidnapping is not an everyday occurrence, it remains a fear of mine. The fear of kidnapping is a common fear among most parents. This fear is an instinctive fear reinforced by regular reports on national news of a child that has been kidnapped. If this fear were to materialize, I would always wonder if my child was being properly taken care of, if he was missing his mom, or at worse, if he was dead. This fear is probably at the top of most parents’ lists of fears as it is mine. Next, the fear of drowning is a thought that brings panic to me anytime I am near water. This fear was brought on at an early age by a near drowning experience. The thought of not being able to breathe is not something that is easily overcome. I am constantly thinking what will happen if I fall into the water. Will I be able to get to the surface? My fear of drowning has only grown in proportion due to my aversion of water. Lastly, the fear of cockroaches is an acquired fear that I got vicariously through my mother. One day when I was a young child we were riding in the car and a cockroach flew onto my mother. She in turn, stopped the vehicle and jump out of the car. She screamed for about 10 minutes until she was assured that the cockroach was out of the car. I know how a huge fear of cockroaches because of this very incident. I am deathly afraid that one will fly on me and touch me with its nasty legs. In my opinion, cockroaches are one of the nastiest insects on the planet. I am petrified by fear when I see one. In conclu...

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Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Project - Essay Example The bathroom appliances mentioned above all have sustainable substitutes including eco-bath systems, recycling bath systems, shallow soakers, and sink-toilet hybrids (Trend Hunter). The eco-bath system is connected to the sink to facilitate the channeling of water from the sink to the toilet gallery (Nazarali). This helps to conserve water that would have otherwise been drained away after use. The recycling bath system is a quantum leap from the eco-bath system. It not only collects used water from the shower and sink, but also has a purifier that recycles the used water and stores it in an inbuilt 80-liter tank (Young). This means that apart from flushing the toilet, the recycled water can also be used for irrigation. Shallow soakers are good alternatives to bathtubs because they save more water compared to the latter. Furthermore, they have a mechanism that helps to keep the bath warm, therefore, enhance power saving. The soaker achieves this by continually releasing foam, which helps to keep the temperature of the water constantly warm (Roblin). The only shortcoming with the soaker is that it might not be as cozy as a bathtub. Finally, the sink-toilet hybrid has a urinal with an incorporated sink so that water running from the sink immediately after use serves to flush the urinal (Luu). The brand name of the eco-bath is â€Å"Jang Woo Seoks Eco Bath System† and it goes for roughly $100 (Alibaba.com). The toilet-sink hybrid is not very sophisticated so it should go for at most $50. The soaker – The FLOU Foaming Bathtub– should also not cost more than $100. Although the recycling bath system is exorbitant, it is a worthwhile